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Human factors aspects in effective communication
Effective communication is achieved when our mental process for interpreting the information contained in a message accommodates the message received.
This mental process can be summarized as follows:
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How do we perceive the message ?

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How do we reconstruct the information contained in the message ?

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How do we link this information to an objective or to an expectation ? and,

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What bias or error is introduced in this process?

Effective Pilot / Controller Communications
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AIRBUS INDUSTRIE                                                                                       Getting to Grips with
    Flight Operations Support                                            Approach-and-Landing Accidents Reduction

Crew resource management (CRM) researches highlight the importance of the context and expectations in this process. Nevertheless, expectations may introduce either a positive or negative bias in the effectiveness of the communication.
Workload, fatigue, non-adherence to the sterile cockpit rule, distractions, interruptions, conflicts and pressure are among the factors that may affect adversely pilot / controller communications and result in:
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Incomplete communications;

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Omission of call sign or use of an incorrect call sign;

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Use of nonstandard phraseology;

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Failure to listen or respond; and,

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Failure to effectively implement the confirmation / correction loop.

Language and Communication
No individual is expected to speak any language, even his/her own native language, correctly and in a standard way. Acknowledging this fact is a first step towards developing or enhancing communication skills.
The language of pilot / controller communications is intended to overcome this basic shortcoming.
The first priority of any communication is to establish an operational context, by using markers and modifiers to define the following elements of the context:
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Purpose - clearance, instruction, conditional statement or proposal, question or request, confirmation;

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When - immediately, anticipate / expect;

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What and how - altitude (i.e., climb, descend, maintain), heading (i.e., left, right) , airspeed; and,

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Where - (i.e., before or at […] waypoint).

The structure and construction of the initial and subsequent message(s) should support this context by:
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Following the chronological order of the sequence of actions; 

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Grouping instructions and numbers related to each action; and,

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Limiting the number of instructions in the transmission.

The intonation, the speed of transmission and the placement and duration of pauses may positively or adversely affect the correct understanding of a communication.
Mastering the Language
CRM studies show that language differences are a more fundamental obstacle to safety in the cockpit than cultural differences.
In response to a series of accidents involving language skills as a causal factor, an effort has been initiated to improve the English-language skills of pilots and controllers worldwide.
　
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