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that order (it's the same to level off).
In general, keep the panel or cowling
slightly above the horizon, and level
Principles of Flight 17
before the selected altitude, at 10%
of the climb rate, so going up at 500
fpm means you must start to level 50
feet beforehand.
Air density (affected by height,
temperature and moisture) will have
an effect on your climb performance
and instrument indications – this is
discussed later on.
Descent
There are two types of descent,
power on and power off. In the
latter situation, the recommended glide
speed in the Flight Manual will give
you the maximum range. A power
on descent is used for more precise
control, as when aiming for a
runway. To initiate descent, the
procedure is to use Power, Attitude
and Trim. When you reduce power,
the nose pitches down, but you
should not let the speed increase.
There will be some yaw to the right,
caused by the diminishing
slipstream. To keep straight, note the
attitude and any items in the
windscreen with constant bearing
(your landing spot).
During the descent, open the
throttle occasionally, both to keep
the engine warm and to clear any ice
forming in the carburettor. Lowering
the flaps or landing gear will steepen
the angle of descent.
You use power to level, as just
pulling the nose up will eventually
lead to further descent (watch for
left yaw – the nose will pitch up, due
to the trim position). As with the
climb, anticipate the level by 10% of
the rate of descent.
Approach & Landing
A good landing depends on a well
set-up approach, during which a lot
happens, so you must be constantly
aware of what's going on. The
landing spot should be kept in the
same relative position on the
windscreen for a constant angle of
approach. The idea is to land with
rear wheels first on a nosewheel
aircraft, and all wheels together on a
taildragger.
Keep your hand on the throttle at all
times, because when you need
power, you will need it now.
Somewhere between 15-30 feet, you
should start the flare, or roundout, by
pulling the control column back,
having closed the throttle first. Keep
pulling back until the aircraft settles
onto the ground (when you should
actually start to flare is difficult to
describe, but my own preference is
when I seem to be going too fast).
When very close to the ground,
further backward movement of the
control column slows you down
rather than keeps your height, and
you would keep it back once a
tailwheel aircraft is on the ground.
You can relax the pressure with a
nosewheel machine, for weight on
the nosewheel to assist steering.
Crosswind landings are more
difficult than crosswind takeoffs,
because the controls are less
responsive (there is no airflow over
them from the powered prop).
There are two methods of
counteracting drift until the final
moments. One is to keep a wing
down into the wind direction (the
sideslip, below). The other, which
requires much practice, and is my
own choice, is to crab in, with the
18 Canadian Private Pilot Studies
nose offset into wind, and with
wings level. Then the machine is
straightened with rudder at the point
of touchdown.
For a short field approach, leave the
power on until the landing flare is
completed – in other words, "drive"
it on to the ground. Get the flaps up
straight away. Before going in,
however, bear in mind that the
takeoff run will always be longer –
can you get out again?
Be prepared for quick deceleration
on soft or rough ground, and watch
for the nosewheel – keep the weight
off as long as possible. You might
want to do a low approach first for
inspection purposes, and to chase
the sheep off.
Slipping
To get down more quickly without
increasing the airspeed, you can use
slipping manoeuvre, which exists
when you bank, as if to turn, but
you actually keep straight with
rudder (this is the forward slip). The
sideslip is used when landing in a
crosswind, to keep straight down the
approach, and kick the machine
straight at the last minute.
Stalling
The stall is a condition where the
wings cannot support the aircraft in
the air (that is, lift is still being
produced, but it is not enough).
As mentioned before, the accepted
maximum angle of attack is about
15°. After that, the air flowing round
　
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