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There are many well-known visual ‘illusions’ which illustrate the limits of human perception. Figure 2 shows how the perceptual system can be misled into believing that one line is longer than the other, even though a ruler will confirm that they are exactly the same.

Figure 2 The Muller-Lyer Illusion
Figure 3 illustrates that we can perceive the same thing quite differently (i.e. the letter “B” or the number “13”). This shows the influence of context on our information processing.

Figure 3 The importance of context. Source: Coren, et al, 1994

In flight operations it is often necessary to refer to checklists or charts with which the flight crew can become very familiar, especially if they are flying the same route on a regular basis. It is possible that a pilot can scan a checklist or chart and fail to notice that subtle changes have been made. He sees only what he expects to see (expectation). To illustrate how our eyes can deceive us when quickly scanning a sentence, read quickly the sentence below in Figure 4.

Figure 4 The effects of expectation
At first, most people tend to notice nothing wrong with the sentence. Our perceptual system sub-consciously rejects the additional “THE”.

3.2 Decision Making, Memory, and Motor Programmes
Attention and perception shortcomings can clearly impinge on decision making. Perceiving something incorrectly may mean that an incorrect decision is made, resulting in an inappropriate action. Figure 1 also shows the dependence on memory to make decisions. It was explained earlier that sensory and short-term memory have limited capacity, both in terms of capacity and duration. It is also important to bear in mind that human memory is fallible, so that information:
.
may not be stored;

.
may be stored incorrectly;

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may be difficult to retrieve.

All these may be referred to as forgetting, which occurs when information is unavailable (not stored in the first place) or inaccessible (cannot be retrieved). Information in short-term memory is particularly susceptible to interference, an example of which would be trying to remember a part number whilst trying to recall a telephone number.
It is generally better to use checklists and aides-memoires rather than to rely upon memory, even in circumstances where the information to be remembered or recalled is relatively simple. For instance, a pilot may think that he will remember a frequency setting without writing it down, but between speaking to ATC and dialling in the frequency, he may forget the setting or confuse it (possibly with a different frequency setting appropriate to another Sector with which he is more familiar). Additionally, if unsure of the accuracy of memorised information, a pilot should seek to check it, even if this means consulting the manual or chart to do so. Noting something down can avoid the risk of forgetting or confusing information.
　
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