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attached to it. For example, imagine how difficult it would
be for a pilot to forget the first day he or she soloed. This is a
significant day in any pilot’s training, so when the information
was processed, significance was attached to it, the information
was deemed important, and it was transferred into LTM.
There must be other reasons information is transferred to
LTM because the average human brain stores numerous
insignificant facts. One explanation is repetition; people tend
to remember things the more they are rehearsed. Information
also ends up in LTM because it is somehow attached to
something significant. A man may remember the color of
the dress his girlfriend was wearing on the day he proposed
marriage to her. The color of the dress plays no important
role, but is attached to the memory of proposing marriage.
For the stored information to be useful, some special effort
must have been expended during the encoding or consolidation
of information in STM. The encoding should provide meaning
and connections between old and new information. If initial
encoding is not properly accomplished, recall is distorted
and it may be impossible. The more effective the encoding
process, the easier the recall. However, it should be noted that
the LTM is a reconstruction, not a pure recall of information
or events. It is also subject to limitations, such as time, biases,
and, in many cases, personal inaccuracies. This is why two
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people who view the same event often have totally different
recollections. Memory also applies to psychomotor skills.
For example, with practice, a tennis player may be able to
serve a tennis ball at a high rate of speed and with accuracy.
This may be accomplished with very little thought. For a
pilot, the ability to instinctively perform certain maneuvers
or tasks that require manual dexterity and precision, provides
obvious benefits. For example, it allows the pilot more time
to concentrate on other essential duties such as navigation,
communications with ATC facilities, and visual scanning
for other aircraft.
Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of
schemas which are the cognitive frameworks that help
people organize and interpret information. Schemas guide
recognition and understanding of new information by
providing expectations about what should occur. Since LTM
is organized into schemas, instructors must consciously look
for ways to make training relevant and meaningful enough
for the learner to transfer new information to LTM. This
can be accomplished by activating existing schemas before
presenting new information. For example, a brief review of
the previous lesson via discussion, video, questions, etc.
Remembering What Has Been Learned
The moment people learn something new and add it to their
repertoire of knowledge and skill, they are confronted with
a second task: the task of remembering it. Remembering is
a challenge because of a natural feature of human memoryforgetting. Forgetting is such an apparent part of human
memory that it is often the first thing that people think of
when they bring up the topic of memory.
The following section discusses how remembering and
forgetting happens in predictable ways that help keep human
memories tuned to the demands of everyday life. Memories
help people keep fresh precisely those things needed next,
and let slip those things that have outlived their usefulness.
Understanding the factors that determine what is remembered
and what is forgotten helps instructor and student get the
most from memory.
How Usage Affects Memory
The ability to retrieve knowledge or skills from memory is
primarily related to two things: (1) how often that knowledge
has been used in the past; and (2) how recently the knowledge
has been used. These two factors are called frequency and
recency of use. Frequency and recency can be present
individually or in combination.
Frequency and recency—knowledge that enjoys both
frequency and recency is likely to be retrieved easily and
quickly. This is knowledge much used in the past that
continues to be used in the present. This is the ideal situation
for knowledge and skills that need to be used.
Frequency only—knowledge that has been used much in the
past but that has not been used recently is vulnerable to being
forgotten. This type of knowledge is likely to be retrieved
slowly or not at all. To retrieve this knowledge and skill,
some recent rehearsal or practice must be added in order to
refresh the memory.
Recency only—knowledge that has been recently used but
　
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