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Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is
too threatening. It is the refusal to acknowledge what has
happened, is happening, or will happen. It is a form of
repression through which stressful thoughts are banned from
memory. Related to denial is minimization. When a person
minimizes something, he or she accepts what happened, but
in a diluted form.
For example, the instructor finds a screwdriver on the wing of
an aircraft the maintenance student was repairing and explains
the hazards of foreign object damage (FOD). The student,
unwilling to accept the reality that his or her inattention
could have caused an aircraft accident, denies having been
in a hurry the previous day. Or, the student minimizes the
incident, accepting he or she left the tool but pointing out that
nothing bad happened as a result of the action.
Other defense mechanisms include but are not limited to
the following:
Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing
perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other
areas. Through compensation, students often attempt to
disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by
emphasizing a more positive one. The “I’m not a fighter,
I’m a lover” philosophy can be an example of compensation.
Compensation involves substituting success in a realm
of life other than the realm in which the person suffers a
weakness.
Projection
Through projection, an individual places his or her own
unacceptable impulses onto someone else. A person
relegates the blame for personal shortcomings, mistakes,
and transgressions to others or attributes personal motives,
desires, characteristics, and impulses to others. The student
pilot who fails a flight exam and says, “I failed because I had
a poor examiner” believes the failure was not due to a lack
of personal skill or knowledge. This student projects blame
onto an “unfair” examiner.
Rationalization
Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying
actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. When true
rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe
in the plausible and acceptable excuses which seem real
and justifiable. For example, a student mechanic performs
poorly on a test. He or she may justify the poor grade by
claiming there was not enough time to learn the required
information. The student does not admit to failing to join
the class study group or taking the computer quiz offered
by the instructor.
Reaction Formation
In reaction formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the
true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. The person
feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or
says something that is the opposite of what he or she really
wants. For example, a student may develop a who-cares-howother-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness
and a hunger for acceptance.
Fantasy
Fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about
how things should be rather than doing anything about how
things are. The student uses his or her imagination to escape
from reality into a fictitious world—a world of success or
pleasure. This provides a simple and satisfying escape from
problems, but if a student gets sufficient satisfaction from
daydreaming, he or she may stop trying to achieve goals
altogether. Perhaps the transitioning pilot is having trouble
mastering a more complex aircraft, which jeopardizes his or
her dream of becoming an airline pilot. It becomes easier to
daydream about the career than to achieve the certification.
Lost in the fantasy, the student spends more time dreaming
about being a successful airline pilot than working toward
the goal. When carried to extremes, the worlds of fantasy
and reality can become so confused that the dreamer cannot
distinguish one from the other.
Displacement
This defense mechanism results in an unconscious shift of
emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more
acceptable, less threatening substitute. Displacement avoids
the risk associated with feeling unpleasant emotions and
puts them somewhere other than where they belong. For
example, the avionics student is angry with the instructor
over a grade received, but fears displaying the anger could
cause the instructor to lower the grade. The student might
choose to express the anger but redirects it toward another,
safer person such as a spouse. Maybe the student yells at the
spouse, but the student knows the spouse either forgives the
　
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