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weather decisions. CFIs should stress that frequent review of
the personal guide keeps the information fresh and increases a
pilot’s ability to recognize the conditions in which a new risk
assessment should be made, a key element in the decisionmaking process.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and
understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four
fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during,
and after the flight. Maintaining situational awareness requires
an understanding of the relative significance of these factors
and their future impact on the flight. When situationally
aware, the pilot has an overview of the total operation and is
not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Some of the
9-10
Warning Signs of Fatigue
Eyes going in and out of focus
Head bobs involuntarily
Persistent yawning
Spotty short-term memory
Wandering or poorly organized thoughts
Missed or erroneous performance of routine procedures
Degradation of control accuracy
Figure 9-5. Fatigue is a threat to aviation safety because it impairs
alertness and performance.
Long naps (3–4 hours*) can restore alertness
for 12–15 hours
Short power naps (10–30 minutes*) can
restore alertness for 3–4 hours
Eat high-protein meals
Drink plenty of fluids, especially water
Rotate flight tasks and converse with other
crew members or passengers
Keep the flight deck temperature cool
Move/stretch in the seat, and periodically
get up to walk around the aircraft, if possible
* Allow 15–20 minutes after awakening to become fully
alert before assuming aircrew duties.
Countermeasures
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Figure 9-6. Countermeasures for coping with fatigue.
elements inside the aircraft to be considered are the status
of aircraft systems, pilot, and passengers. In addition, an
awareness of the environmental conditions of the flight, such
as spatial orientation of the aircraft and its relationship to
terrain, traffic, weather, and airspace must be maintained.
To maintain situational awareness, all of the skills involved
in ADM are used. For example, an accurate perception of
the pilot’s fitness can be achieved through self-assessment
and recognition of hazardous attitudes. A clear assessment of
the status of navigation equipment can be obtained through
workload management, and establishing a productive
relationship with ATC can be accomplished by effective
resource use.
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness
Many obstacles exist that can interfere with a pilot’s ability
to maintain situational awareness. For example, fatigue,
stress, or work overload can cause the pilot to fixate on a
single perceived important item rather than maintaining an
overall awareness of the flight situation. A contributing factor
in many accidents is a distraction, which diverts the pilot’s
attention from monitoring the instruments or scanning outside
the aircraft. Many flight deck distractions begin as a minor
problem, such as a gauge that is not reading correctly, but
result in accidents as the pilot diverts attention to the perceived
problem and neglects to properly control the aircraft.
Fatigue, discussed as an obstacle to learning, is also an
obstacle to maintaining situational awareness. It is a
threat to aviation safety because it impairs alertness and
performance. [Figure 9-5] The term is used to describe a
range of experiences from sleepy, or tired, to exhausted. Two
major physiological phenomena create fatigue: sleep loss and
circadian rhythm disruption.
Fatigue is a normal response to many conditions common
to flight operations because characteristics of the flight deck
environment, such as low barometric pressure, humidity,
noise, and vibration, make pilots susceptible to fatigue. The
only effective treatment for fatigue is adequate sleep. As
fatigue progresses, it is responsible for increased errors of
omission, followed by errors of commission, and microsleeps,
or involuntary sleep lapses lasting from a few seconds to a
few minutes. For obvious reasons, errors caused by these
short absences can have significant hazardous consequences
in the aviation environment.
Sleep-deprived pilots may not notice sleepiness or other
fatigue symptoms during preflight and departure flight
operations. Once underway and established on altitude and
heading, sleepiness and other fatigue symptoms tend to
　
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