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the result of ego or overconfidence; rather, it is something to
which we are all susceptible. Psychologist Baruch Fischoff
studied hindsight explanations given by people who were
presented with descriptions of situations and their ultimate
outcomes. When asked to provide explanations for events that
had already occurred and for which the outcome was known,
people explained that the outcomes were “obvious” and
“predictable.” When the same events without the outcomes
were presented to a second group, peoples’ prediction of the
outcome was no better than chance guessing. The study nicely
illustrates the popular adage that “hindsight is 20/20.”
Summary of Instructor Actions
To help students learn from errors they make and be prepared
for them in the future, an instructor should:
• Explain that pilots and mechanics at all levels of skill
and experience make occasional errors.
• Explain that the magnitude and frequency of errors
tend to decrease as skill and experience increases.
• Explain the difference between slips and mistakes and
provide examples of each.
• Explain ways in which the student can help minimize
errors.
• Allow the student to practice recovering from common
errors.
• Point out errors when they occur and ask the student
to explain why they occurred.
Motivation
As defined in chapter 1, motivation is the reason one acts
or behaves in a certain way and lies at the heart of goals. A
goal is the object of a person’s effort. Motivation prompts
students to engage in hard work and affects student success.
Being smart or coordinated seldom guarantees success,
but motivation routinely propels students to the top. An
important part of an aviation instructor’s job is to discover
what motivates each student and to use this information to
encourage him or her to work hard.
2-30
Figure 2-22. Insecure and unpleasant training situations inhibit
learning.
Motivation is probably the dominant force that governs
the student’s progress and ability to learn and can be used
to advantage by the instructor. Motivation comes in many
guises. It may be negative or positive. Negative motivation
may engender fear, for example. While negative motivation
may be useful in certain situations, characteristically it is
not as effective in promoting efficient learning as positive
motivation. [Figure 2-22] Positive motivation is provided
by the promise or achievement of rewards. These rewards
may be personal or social, they may involve financial gain,
satisfaction of the self-concept, personal gain, or public
recognition.
Motivation may be tangible or intangible. Students seeking
intangible rewards are motivated by the desires for personal
comfort and security, group approval, and the achievement of
a favorable self-image. The desire for personal comfort and
security is a form of motivation which instructors often forget.
All students want secure, pleasant conditions and a safe
environment. If they recognize that what they are learning
may promote these objectives, their attention is easier to
attract and hold. Insecure and unpleasant training situations
inhibit learning. Students also want a tangible return for their
efforts. For motivation to be effective on this level, students
must believe that their efforts are suitably rewarded. These
rewards must be constantly apparent to the student during
instruction, whether they are to be financial, self-esteem, or
public recognition.
The tangible rewards of aviation are not always obvious
during training. Traditional syllabi often contain lessons with
objectives that are not immediately obvious to the student.
These lessons may pay dividends during later instruction,
a fact the student may not appreciate and resulting in less
learning than if the student could relate all objectives to an
operational need (law of readiness). The instructor should
ensure that the student is aware of those applications which
are not immediately apparent. To reduce this issue, the
instructor should develop appropriate scenarios that contain
the elements to be practiced.
Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury. Students normally
are eager to learn operations or procedures that help prevent
injury or loss of life. This is especially true when the student
knows that the ability to make timely decisions, or to act
correctly in an emergency, is based on sound principles.
The attractive features of the activity to be learned also can
be a strong motivational factor. Students are anxious to learn
　
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