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understanding was incorrect or incomplete. For example,
overly simplistic understanding of weather frequently leads
inexperienced students into situations that are unexpected.
Experts are not immune to making mistakes, which
sometimes arise from the way an expert draws upon
knowledge of familiar problems and responds to them using
familiar solutions. [Figure 2-21] Mistakes can occur when
the expert categorizes a particular case incorrectly. For
example, an experienced pilot may become accustomed to
ignoring nuisance alerts issued by his traffic alerting system
when approaching his home airport, as many aircraft on the
ground turn on their transponders prior to takeoff. One night,
he ignores an alert that was generated not by an aircraft on
the ground, but rather by another aircraft that has turned in
front of him on final approach.
Reducing Error
Although it is impossible to eliminate errors entirely, there
are ways to reduce them, as described in the following
paragraphs.
Learning and Practicing
The first line of defense against errors is learning and practice.
Higher levels of knowledge and skill are associated with a
lower frequency and magnitude of error.
Taking Time
Errors can often be reduced by working deliberately at a
comfortable pace. Hurrying does not achieve the same results
as faster performance that is gained by increasing one’s skill
through continued practice.
2-29
Checking for Errors
Another way to help avoid errors is to look actively for
evidence of them. Many tasks in aviation offer a means of
checking work. Students should be encouraged to look for
new ways of checking their work.
Using Reminders
Errors are reduced when visible reminders are present and
actively used. Checklists and other published procedures
are examples of reminders. Many aircraft instruments such
as altimeters offer bugs that can be used to remind the pilot
about assigned altitudes, airspeeds, headings, and courses.
Mechanics and pilots alike can use notepads to jot down
reminders or information that must otherwise be committed
to memory.
Developing Routines
The use of standardized procedures for routine tasks is widely
known to help reduce error. Even when a checklist procedure
is unavailable or impractical, students can help reduce the
occurrence of error by adopting standardized procedures.
Raising Awareness
Another line of defense against errors is to raise one’s
awareness when operating in conditions under which errors
are known to happen (e.g., changes in routine, time pressure),
or in conditions under which defenses against errors have
been compromised (e.g., fatigue, lack of recent practice).
Error Recovery
Given that the occasional error is inevitable, it is a worthwhile
exercise to practice recovering from commonly made errors,
or those that pose serious consequences. All flight students are
required to learn and practice a lost procedure to ensure that
they can recover from the situation in which they have lost
their way. It is useful to devote the same sort of preparation
to other common student errors.
Learning From Error
Error can be a valuable learning resource. Students naturally
make errors, which instructors can utilize to help students
learn while being careful not to let the student practice doing
the wrong thing. When a student makes an error, it is useful
to ask the student to consider why the error happened, and
what could be done differently to prevent the error from
happening again in the future. In some cases, errors are
slips that simply reveal the need for more practice. In other
cases, errors point to aspects of student methods or habits
that might be improved. For example, beginning instrument
flight students commonly make errors when managing two
communications radios, each with an active and standby
frequency. When the same students learn to use each radio
for a specific purpose (e.g., ATIS, ground, tower frequencies),
error rates often drop quickly.
Instructors and students should be aware of a natural human
tendency to resist learning from errors. That is, there is
a tendency to “explain away” errors, dismissing them as
one-time events that will likely never happen again. The
same phenomenon occurs when observing errors made by
others. Reading an accident or incident report, it is easy to
spot where a pilot or mechanic made an error and regard the
error as something that could never happen to the reader. It
is important to note that this type of bias is not necessarily
　
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