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especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate
the weather for a particular flight, they should consider the
following:
• What are the current ceiling and visibility? In
mountainous terrain, consider having higher minimums
for ceiling and visibility, particularly if the terrain is
unfamiliar.
• Consider the possibility that the weather may be
different than forecast. Have alternative plans, and
be ready and willing to divert should an unexpected
change occur.
• Consider the winds at the airports being used and the
strength of the crosswind component.
• If flying in mountainous terrain, consider whether there
are strong winds aloft. Strong winds in mountainous
terrain can cause severe turbulence and downdrafts
and can be very hazardous for aircraft even when there
is no other significant weather.
• Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
• If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or
forecast? What is the temperature-dew point spread
and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent
be made safely all along the route?
• If icing conditions are encountered, is the pilot
experienced at operating the aircraft’s deicing or
anti-icing equipment? Is this equipment in good
condition and functional? For what icing conditions
is the aircraft rated, if any?
9-7
Evaluation of terrain is another important component of
analyzing the flight environment. To avoid terrain and
obstacles, especially at night or in low visibility, determine
safe altitudes in advance by using the altitudes shown on
VFR and IFR charts during preflight planning. Use maximum
elevation figures (MEFs) and other easily obtainable data
to minimize chances of an inflight collision with terrain or
obstacles.
Airport considerations include:
• What lights are available at the destination and
alternate airports? VASI/PAPI or ILS glideslope
guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them?
Are they working? Will the pilot need to use the radio
to activate the airport lights?
• Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) for closed
runways or airports. Look for runway or beacon lights
out, nearby towers, etc.
• Choose the flight route wisely. An engine failure
gives the nearby airports (and terrain) supreme
importance.
• Are there shorter or obstructed fields at the destination
and/or alternate airports?
Airspace considerations include:
• If the trip is over remote areas, are appropriate
clothing, water, and survival gear onboard in the event
of a forced landing?
• If the trip includes flying over water or unpopulated
areas with the chance of losing visual reference to
the horizon, the pilot must be current, equipped, and
qualified to fly IFR.
• Check the airspace and any temporary flight restriction
(TFRs) along the route of flight.
Night flying requires special consideration.
• If the trip includes flying at night over water or
unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual
reference to the horizon, the pilot must be prepared
to fly IFR.
• Will the flight conditions allow a safe emergency
landing at night?
• Preflight all aircraft lights, interior and exterior, for
a night flight. Carry at least two flashlights—one for
exterior preflight and a smaller one that can be dimmed
and kept nearby.
E = External Pressures
External pressures are influences external to the flight that
create a sense of pressure to complete a flight—often at the
expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures
include the following:
• Someone waiting at the airport for the flight’s
arrival.
• A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint.
• The desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications.
• The desire to impress someone. (Probably the two
most dangerous words in aviation are “Watch this!”)
• The desire to satisfy a specific personal goal (“gethome-itis,” “get-there-itis,” and “let’s-go-itis”).
• The pilot’s general goal-completion orientation.
• Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging
that skill and experience levels may be lower than a
pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful
external factor!
Management of external pressure is the single most important
key to risk management because it is the one risk factor
　
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