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To establish the desired angle of bank, the pilot should
use outside visual reference points, as well as the bank
indicator on the attitude indicator.
The best outside reference for establishing the degree of
bank is the angle formed by the raised wing of low-wing
airplanes (the lowered wing of high-wing airplanes) and
the horizon, or the angle made by the top of the engine
cowling and the horizon. [Figure 3-11 on page 3-11]
Since on most light airplanes the engine cowling is fairly
flat, its horizontal angle to the horizon will give some
indication of the approximate degree of bank. Also,
information obtained from the attitude indicator will
show the angle of the wing in relation to the horizon.
Information from the turn coordinator, however, will not.
SKID COORDINATED SLIP
TURN
Pilot feels
sideways force
to outside of turn
Pilot feels
force straight
down into seat
Pilot feels
sideways force
to inside of turn
Ball to outside
of turn
Ball centered Ball to inside
of turn
Figure 3-8. Indications of a slip and skid.
OVERBANKING TENDENCY
Outer wing travels greater distance
• Higher Speed
• More Lift
Inner wing travels shorter distance
• Lower speed
• Less lift
Figure 3-10. Overbanking tendency during a steep turn.
Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-9
3-10
CONSTANT AIRSPEED
10° Angle of Bank
20° Angle of Bank
30° Angle of Bank
When airspeed is
held constant, a
larger angle of bank
will result in a
smaller turn radius
and a greater turn
rate.
CONSTANT ANGLE OF BANK
When angle of bank
is held constant, a
slower airspeed will
result in a smaller
turn radius and
greater turn rate.
80 kts
90 kts
100 kts
Figure 3-9. Angle of bank and airspeed regulate rate and radius of turn.
Ch 03.qxd 7/13/04 11:08 AM Page 3-10
3-11
The pilot’s posture while seated in the airplane is very
important, particularly during turns. It will affect the
interpretation of outside visual references. At the
beginning, the student may lean away from the turn in
an attempt to remain upright in relation to the ground
rather than ride with the airplane. This should be corrected
immediately if the student is to properly learn to
use visual references. [Figure 3-12]
Parallax error is common among students and experienced
pilots. This error is a characteristic of airplanes
that have side-by-side seats because the pilot is seated to
one side of the longitudinal axis about which the airplane
rolls. This makes the nose appear to rise when making a
left turn and to descend when making right turns. [Figure
3-13]
Beginning students should not use large aileron and
rudder applications because this produces a rapid roll
rate and allows little time for corrections before the
desired bank is reached. Slower (small control displacement)
roll rates provide more time to make
necessary pitch and bank corrections. As soon as
the airplane rolls from the wings-level attitude, the
nose should also start to move along the horizon,
increasing its rate of travel proportionately as the
bank is increased.
The following variations provide excellent guides.
• If the nose starts to move before the bank starts,
rudder is being applied too soon.
• If the bank starts before the nose starts turning, or
the nose moves in the opposite direction, the rudder
is being applied too late.
• If the nose moves up or down when entering a
bank, excessive or insufficient up elevator is being
applied.
As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron
and rudder pressures should be relaxed. This will
stop the bank from increasing because the aileron
and rudder control surfaces will be neutral in their
streamlined position. The up-elevator pressure
should not be relaxed, but should be held constant to
maintain a constant altitude. Throughout the turn, the
pilot should cross-check the airspeed indicator, and
if the airspeed has decreased more than 5 knots, additional
power should be used. The cross-check should
also include outside references, altimeter, and vertical
speed indicator (VSI), which can help determine
whether or not the pitch attitude is correct. If gaining
or losing altitude, the pitch attitude should be
adjusted in relation to the horizon, and then the
altimeter and VSI rechecked to determine if altitude
is being maintained.
Figure 3-11. Visual reference for angle of bank.
　
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