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even the minutest change.
The response of the aileron and rudder controls to the
pilot’s touch is another element of “feel,” and is one
that provides direct information concerning airspeed.
As previously stated, control surfaces move in the
airstream and meet resistance proportional to the
speed of the airstream. When the airstream is fast, the
controls are stiff and hard to move. When the airstream
is slow, the controls move easily, but must be deflected
a greater distance. The pressure that must be exerted
on the controls to effect a desired result, and the lag
between their movement and the response of the airplane,
becomes greater as airspeed decreases.
Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through the
airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example
is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes
a stall.
Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or
speed of motion, is one of the most important senses a
pilot can develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia
can warn the pilot of changes in speed and/or
the beginning of a settling or mushing of the airplane.
The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane are
inherent in every person. However, “feel” must be
developed. The flight instructor should direct the
beginning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach
an awareness of their meaning as it relates to various
conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight
instructor must fully understand the difference
between perceiving something and merely noticing it.
It is a well established fact that the pilot who develops
a “feel” for the airplane early in flight training will
have little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.
ATTITUDE FLYING
In contact (VFR) flying, flying by attitude means visually
establishing the airplane’s attitude with reference
to the natural horizon. [Figure 3-1] Attitude is the
angular difference measured between an airplane’s
axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude
is the angle formed by the longitudinal axis, and bank
attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis.
Rotation about the airplane’s vertical axis (yaw) is
termed an attitude relative to the airplane’s flightpath,
but not relative to the natural horizon.
In attitude flying, airplane control is composed of four
components: pitch control, bank control, power control,
and trim.
• Pitch control is the control of the airplane about
the lateral axis by using the elevator to raise and
lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.
• Bank control is control of the airplane about the longitudinal
axis by use of the ailerons to attain a desired
bank angle in relation to the natural horizon.
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• Power control is used when the flight situation
indicates a need for a change in thrust.
• Trim is used to relieve all possible control pressures
held after a desired attitude has been
attained.
The primary rule of attitude flying is:
ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE
INTEGRATED FLIGHT INSTRUCTION
When introducing basic flight maneuvers to a beginning
pilot, it is recommended that the “Integrated” or
“Composite” method of flight instruction be used. This
means the use of outside references and flight instruments
to establish and maintain desired flight attitudes
and airplane performance. [Figure 3-2] When beginning
pilots use this technique, they achieve a more precise
and competent overall piloting ability. Although this
method of airplane control may become second nature
with experience, the beginning pilot must make a determined
effort to master the technique. The basic elements
of which are as follows.
• The airplane’s attitude is established and maintained
by positioning the airplane in relation to the
natural horizon. At least 90 percent of the pilot’s
attention should be devoted to this end, along with
PITCH CONTROL
BANK CONTROL
Figure 3-1. Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.
No more than
10% of the pilot's
attention should
be inside the
cockpit.
90% of the time, the pilot's attention should
be outside the cockpit.
Figure 3-2. Integrated or composite method of flight instruction.
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scanning for other airplanes. If, during a recheck of
the pitch and/or bank, either or both are found to be
　
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