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single person to control multiple aircraft. Highly autonomous aircraft have reduced requirements for
ground equipment and communications and can leverage advances in displays and voice control. The
benefits of this are reduced manpower, reduced hardware (and therefore logistics), and increased
effectiveness.
Flight Autonomy and Cognitive Processes
Advances in computer and communications technologies have enabled the development of autonomous
unmanned systems. The Vietnam conflict era remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs) were typically controlled
by the manned aircraft that launched them, or by ground elements. These systems required skilled
operators. Some of these systems flew rudimentary mission profiles based on analog computers, but they
remained primarily hand flown throughout the majority of the mission profiles. In the 1970s the Air
Force embarked on the Compass Cope program to develop a high altitude long-endurance system capable
of reconnaissance at long range. The Compass Cope systems were still hand flown.
In 1988 DARPA developed the first autonomous UA, a high altitude long endurance UA called Condor,
with a design goal of 150 hours at 60,000 feet. This aircraft was pre-programmed from takeoff to landing
and had no direct manual inputs, e.g. no stick and rudder capability in the ground station. The system
flew successfully 11 times setting altitude and endurance records. The level of autonomy in this aircraft
was limited to redundancy management of subsystems and alternate runways. It demonstrated these
features several times during the flight test program. Next came Global Hawk and DarkStar, which
advanced autonomy almost to Level 3 (see Figure D-5); with real-time health and diagnostics and
substantial improvements in adaptive behavior to flight conditions and in-flight failures.
The J-UCAS program is extending the work being accomplished by these programs, advancing the state
of the art in multi-aircraft cooperation. Decisions include: coordinated navigation plan updates,
communication plan reassignments, weapons allocations or the accumulation of data from the entire
squadron to arrive at an updated situational assessment. Cooperation in this context applies to
cooperative actions among the J-UCAS aircraft. They will have inter-aircraft data links to allow transfer
of information between them and the manned aircraft. The information may include mission plan
updates, target designation information, image chips and possibly other sensor data. Key mission
decisions will be made based on the information passed between the systems. The J-UCAS will still have
all of the subsystem management and contingency management autonomous attributes as the previous
generation of UA systems. The J-UCAS program plans to demonstrate at least level 6 autonomy. Figure
D-5 depicts where some UA stand in comparison to the ten levels of autonomy.
UAS ROADMAP 2005
APPENDIX D – TECHNOLOGIES
Page D-10
UA RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS
In response to this Roadmap’s data call, the services and other DoD agencies identified approximately
1011 funded research and development (R&D) programs and initiatives developing technologies and
capabilities either for specific UA (UA “specific” programs) or broader programs pursuing technologies
and capabilities applicable to manned as well as unmanned aviation (UA “applicable”). The total PB05
research investment across the DoD was approximately $2,553 M, of which approximately $1,216 M
(48%) was in UA specific programs, and $1,337 M (52%) in UA applicable programs. In the latter
category, spending was primarily in the areas of platform, control and payload/sensors R&D, whereas the
bulk of the spending in the former UA specific category was in broad technology initiatives and
weaponization.
1955
Autonomous Control Levels
Pioneer
1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015 2025
Global Hawk
J-UCAS Goal
Fully Autonomous Swarms
Group Strategic Goals
Distributed Control
Group Tactical Goals
Group Tactical Replan
Group Coordination
Adapt to Failures & Flight Conditions
Real Time Health/Diagnosis
Remotely Guided
Onboard Route Replan
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 Predator
1
FIGURE D-5. AUTONOMOUS CAPABILITY LEVELS (ACLS).
Weapons and targeting R&D constituted 61% of all UA specific R&D program spending. Specific
investment was broken out by broad technology areas as follows:
27 % ($692.46 M) was in platform-related enhancements,
- of this, 5% was UA specific and 95% was UA applicable R&D
14 % ($353.63 M) in control technologies (to include autonomy),
- 32% UA specific, 68% UA applicable R&D
　
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