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preceding aircraft is over the landing threshold, is
provided to small aircraft:
(a) Small aircraft landing behind heavy jet -
6 miles.
(b) Small aircraft landing behind B757 -
5 miles.
(c) Small aircraft landing behind large
aircraft- 4 miles.
REFERENCEPilot/
Controller Glossary Term- Aircraft Classes.
3. Additionally, appropriate time or distance
intervals are provided to departing aircraft:
(a) Two minutes or the appropriate 4 or 5 mile
radar separation when takeoff behind a heavy/B757
jet will be:
(1) From the same threshold.
(2) On a crossing runway and projected
flight paths will cross.
(3) From the threshold of a parallel runway
when staggered ahead of that of the adjacent runway
by less than 500 feet and when the runways are
separated by less than 2,500 feet.
NOTEControllers
may not reduce or waive these intervals.
AIM 2/14/08
7-3-8 Wake Turbulence
b. A 3-minute interval will be provided when a
small aircraft will takeoff:
1. From an intersection on the same runway
(same or opposite direction) behind a departing large
aircraft,
2. In the opposite direction on the same runway
behind a large aircraft takeoff or low/missed
approach.
NOTEThis
3-minute interval may be waived upon specific pilot
request.
c. A 3-minute interval will be provided for all
aircraft taking off when the operations are as
described in subparagraph b1 and 2 above, the
preceding aircraft is a heavy/B757 jet, and the
operations are on either the same runway or parallel
runways separated by less than 2,500 feet.
Controllers may not reduce or waive this interval.
d. Pilots may request additional separation i.e.,
2minutes instead of 4 or 5 miles for wake turbulence
avoidance. This request should be made as soon as
practical on ground control and at least before taxiing
onto the runway.
NOTE-
14 CFR Section 91.3(a) states: “The pilot-in-command of
an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final
authority as to the operation of that aircraft.”
e. Controllers may anticipate separation and need
not withhold a takeoff clearance for an aircraft
departing behind a large/heavy aircraft if there is
reasonable assurance the required separation will
exist when the departing aircraft starts takeoff roll.
2/14/08 AIM
Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests 7-4-1
Section 4. Bird Hazards and Flight Over National
Refuges, Parks, and Forests
7-4-1. Migratory Bird Activity
a. Bird strike risk increases because of bird
migration during the months of March through April,
and August through November.
b. The altitudes of migrating birds vary with winds
aloft, weather fronts, terrain elevations, cloud
conditions, and other environmental variables. While
over 90 percent of the reported bird strikes occur at or
below 3,000 feet AGL, strikes at higher altitudes are
common during migration. Ducks and geese are
frequently observed up to 7,000 feet AGL and pilots
are cautioned to minimize en route flying at lower
altitudes during migration.
c. Considered the greatest potential hazard to
aircraft because of their size, abundance, or habit of
flying in dense flocks are gulls, waterfowl, vultures,
hawks, owls, egrets, blackbirds, and starlings.
Fourmajor migratory flyways exist in the U.S. The
Atlantic flyway parallels the Atlantic Coast. The
Mississippi Flyway stretches from Canada through
the Great Lakes and follows the Mississippi River.
The Central Flyway represents a broad area east of the
Rockies, stretching from Canada through Central
America. The Pacific Flyway follows the west coast
and overflies major parts of Washington, Oregon, and
California. There are also numerous smaller flyways
which cross these major north‐south migratory
routes.
7-4-2. Reducing Bird Strike Risks
a. The most serious strikes are those involving
ingestion into an engine (turboprops and turbine jet
engines) or windshield strikes. These strikes can
result in emergency situations requiring prompt
action by the pilot.
b. Engine ingestions may result in sudden loss of
power or engine failure. Review engine out
procedures, especially when operating from airports
with known bird hazards or when operating near high
bird concentrations.
c. Windshield strikes have resulted in pilots
experiencing confusion, disorientation, loss of
communications, and aircraft control problems.
Pilots are encouraged to review their emergency
procedures before flying in these areas.
　
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