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be alert for unannounced and undefined anomalies. Of the Avianca Flight 052 fuel
starvation accident at New York, Besco (1997) contends that, although very busy,
controllers had several opportunities to perceive and relieve a whole series of errors,
oversights and misconceptions being made by each other. The pilot had asked for
“priority handling”. Yet because he had not used the word “emergency”, or the
distress calls “mayday” or “pan pan”, the controllers responded to his low fuel
situation, not his low fuel emergency.
CRM has aimed to improve co-ordination within the cockpit and cabin by altering
attitudes of pilots from individuals to a more team-based approach. Proposals have
been made to extend the concept to air traffic control but these have foundered
because there is no history of controllers acting as “rugged individualists” (Bowers,
Blickensderfer and Morgan, 1998), nor are the jobs as similar as outsiders might
expect (Ruitenberg, 1995). Controllers working traffic are not subject to a similar
hierarchial structure that exists in the cockpit. By its very nature, air traffic control
requires continual communication and co-ordination between individuals to be
effective.
4.5 Gender and Physiology
Gender has some bearing on communications in the air traffic system. In studies of
individual differences in performance (Tattersall, 1998), females tend to perform
better with respect to verbal-linguistic skills, whereas males perform better in visualspatial
and mathematical skills (the geometrical tasks rather than the computational).
Males experience greater hearing loss with age than females, but vision in females
declines at an earlier age. Females have superior pure-tone auditory thresholds,
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whereas males have better visual acuity. No gender differences were reported in the
performance of various tasks in noise at different times of the day. My experience is
that female voices are easier to hear on VHF (very high frequency) and especially the
noisier HF (high frequency) channels.
Another aspect of gender is considered in HEART (Human Error Assessment and
Reduction Technique), developed by Jeremy Williams, a British ergonomist (Reason,
1997). Error-producing conditions (EPC’s) are ranked according to their relative
influences and a means of assessing various violation-producing conditions (VPC’s)
has been determined. Unlike for errors, there is a large gender effect for noncompliance
with rules and procedures. For males, a factor of ‘x1.4’ must be
applied—that is, males are 1.4 times more likely than females to violate rules and
procedures. We might, therefore, expect them to be more likely not to use standard
phraseologies and approved key words.
It is well understood that illness can affect hearing and voice quality. It is also known
that drugs impair performance. In 1975, during descent towards Nairobi, the co-pilot
of a Being 747 misheard an air traffic controller’s instruction; instead of “seven five
zero zero” he heard, and readback, “five zero zero zero” and set the aircraft’s flight
management system to level out at 5000 feet. The incorrect readback was not
detected due to other co-ordination occurring at the same time. When the aircraft
broke through the cloud, the captain found himself a little more than 200 feet above
the ground and 8 miles from the runway—the aircraft came within 70 feet of the
ground before climbing away. It transpired that the co-pilot had been taking
unauthorised drugs to remove a large tapeworm that he had picked up while
holidaying in India (Accident Investigation Branch, 1975).
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As regulations have become more complex, lawsuits more frequent, sums of money
sought more exorbitant, and FAA enforcement policies more harsh, pilots have been
less and less inclined to declare emergencies. Pilots and controllers have become
increasingly concerned about possible legal implications instead of focusing on how
to prevent serious accidents.
—Brenlove, M (1993:67)
Vectors to Spare: The Life of an Air Traffic Controller.
5. Air Traffic Control Communications and the Law
Airservices Australia was established as a Government Business Enterprise under the
Air Services Act 1995 with one of its six functions being the provision of air traffic
services such as air traffic control and flight service. As noted earlier, the legal
relationship between pilots and controllers under CAR 100 (4) is that “the pilot in
command of an aircraft is responsible for compliance with air traffic control
clearances and air traffic control instructions”. Air traffic controller liability is
　
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