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The controversy was heightened in 1976 when a British Airways Hawker Siddeley
Trident and a Inex Adria Aviopromet (Yugoslavia) McDonnell Douglas DC-9
collided in mid-air near Zagreb, killing 176 people (Gero, 1996). It was soon learned
that the Yugoslav pilot and controller conversed in Serbo-Croat which prevented the
British pilot from being aware of the danger. Perhaps if both pilots had been using
the same language, either one might have detected the controller error or taken
evasive action. (Poor phraseologies by pilots and controllers were also implicated in
this accident—Stewart, 1986).
Bilingual IFR (instrument flight rules) Communications Simulation Studies (BICSS)
were conducted to gather data on communications characteristics, communication
errors and losses of separation. These included the duration of controller messages
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and latency—the time required by controllers to respond to messages.
Communication errors included those which occurred on both bilingual and
unilingual days, and those which occurred only on bilingual days, such as a controller
addressing a message to a pilot in the wrong language. Average transmission times
were found to be slightly longer in French than in English. Bilingualism caused no
loss in system efficiency (i.e. arrivals and departures). However, there was a
statistically significant increase in errors identified on bilingual days compared with
unilingual days. The difference was caused by false starts, where a controller began a
transmission in one language but corrected himself before he had finished, and
language changes, a more serious error where a controller completes a transmission in
the incorrect language, receives no reply, and so must begin again. The researchers
found the normal rate of miscommunication disquieting:
Participants in the simulations, especially pilots, were surprised and concerned by the
high error rates in the exercises. In order to determine whether these were
representative of the real world, the project team compared samples of several hours of
unilingual control tower tapes and of unilingual simulation exercise tapes and found
that the incidence of controller and pilot errors was indeed comparable. (Borins,
1983:203)
There was, however, no statistically significant difference in the rate at which losses
of separation between aircraft occurred.
The BICSS team also studied the role of the listening watch. Of 97 errors, 32 were
detected by pilots listening on the frequency. The listening watch was more effective
in the enroute environment than in the terminal area because pilots are tuned into the
enroute frequency for longer and are not as occupied with controlling the aircraft.
The BICSS report recommended changes to ATC procedures designed to minimise
language errors and compensate for the reduced effectiveness of the listening watch.
These included encouraging pilots to use only one language in the course of a flight
and the use of the ICAO phonetic alphabet to avoid confusion between English and
French pronunciations of letters.
The Commission of Inquiry found that 83 countries used more than one language in
air traffic control, as compared with 45 which used English alone. Some patterns
were clearly apparent: countries using English alone were mainly those which are
anglophone or which were colonised by Britain (e.g., the Bahamas, Barbados, Burma,
Cyprus, Ghana, Pakistan). In the developed countries, all non-anglophone countries,
except the Netherlands, used two or more languages for air traffic control. A study
conducted for the Commission examined over 17,000 reports of accidents involving
aircraft over 12,500 LB in weight from throughout the world and found only one
which might have been avoided by the use of one language: a mid-air collision in
1960 involving a US aircraft being controlled in English and a Brazilian aircraft being
controlled in Portuguese. The Commission drew the following conclusion:
If one stops to think of the number of flights that must have been made, and of the
miles flown, and the passengers carried, during the past 20 years in 83 countries
throughout the world where air traffic control services are provided in two or more
languages, one is left with an abiding conviction that there is nothing inherently
dangerous in bilingual air traffic control. (quoted by Borins, 1983:186)
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Subsequently, the use of French in domestic air traffic control was permitted in
Quebec. An attempt to use French for international traffic flying into and out of the
province was thwarted when pilots threatened to boycott the province.
4.4 Culture
Until the 1980’s the term culture applied more to nationalities and was really only an
　
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