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raising the nose to the correct climb attitude, and as
the airspeed decreases, either overcontrol and further
increase the pitch attitude, or allow the nose to lower. As
control pressures change with airspeed changes, crosscheck
must be increased and pressures readjusted.
4. Failure to trim off pressures. Unless the airplane is
trimmed, there will be difficulty in determining whether
control pressure changes are induced by aerodynamic
changes or by the pilot’s own movements.
5. Failure to learn and use proper power settings.
6. Failure to cross-check both airspeed and vertical speed
before making pitch or power adjustments.
7. Improper pitch and power coordination on slow-speed
level offs, due to slow cross-check of airspeed and
altimeter indications.
8. Failure to cross-check the VSI against the other pitch
control instruments, resulting in chasing the vertical
speed.
9. Failure to note the rate of climb or descent to determine
the lead for level offs, resulting in overshooting or
undershooting the desired altitude.
10. Ballooning (allowing the nose to pitch up) on level
offs from descents, resulting from failure to maintain
descending attitude with forward-elevator pressure as
power is increased to the level flight cruise setting.
11. Failure to recognize the approaching straight-and-level
flight indications as level off is completed. Maintain
an accelerated cross-check until positively established
in straight-and-level flight.
Turns
Standard Rate Turns
A standard rate turn is one in which the pilot will do a
complete 360° circle in two minutes, or 3° per second. A
standard rate turn, although always 3° per second, will
require higher angles of bank as airspeed increases. To enter a
standard rate level turn, apply coordinated aileron and rudder
pressures in the desired direction of turn. Pilots commonly
roll into turns at a much too rapid rate. During initial training
in turns, base control pressures on the rate of cross-check
and interpretation. Maneuvering an airplane faster than
the capability to keep up with the changes in instrument
indications only creates the need to make corrections.
A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank
required for a standard rate turn is to use 15 percent of the
true airspeed. A simple way to determine this amount is to
5-20
Figure 5-33. Standard Rate Turn, Constant Airspeed.
divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For
example, at 100 knots, approximately 15° of bank is required
(100 ÷ 10 = 10 + 5 = 15); at 120 knots, approximately 18°
of bank is needed for a standard rate turn.
On the roll-in, use the attitude indicator to establish
the approximate angle of bank, and then check the turn
coordinator’s miniature aircraft for a standard rate turn
indication or the aircraft’s turn-and-bank indicator. Maintain
the bank for this rate of turn, using the turn coordinator’s
miniature aircraft as the primary bank reference and the
attitude indicator as the supporting bank instrument.
[Figure 5-33] Note the exact angle of bank shown on
the banking scale of the attitude indicator when the turn
coordinator indicates a standard rate turn.
During the roll-in, check the altimeter, VSI, and attitude
indicator for the necessary pitch adjustments as the vertical
lift component decreases with an increase in bank. If constant
airspeed is to be maintained, the ASI becomes primary for
power, and the throttle must be adjusted as drag increases. As
the bank is established, trim off the pressures applied during
pitch and power changes.
To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply coordinated
aileron and rudder pressures opposite to the direction of the
turn. Strive for the same rate of roll-out used to roll into the
turn; fewer problems will be encountered in estimating the
lead necessary for roll-out on exact headings, especially on
partial panel maneuvers. Upon initiation of the turn recovery,
the attitude indicator becomes the primary bank instrument.
When the airplane is approximately level, the heading
indicator is the primary bank instrument as in straight-andlevel
flight. Pitch, power, and trim adjustments are made as
changes in vertical lift component and airspeed occur. The
ball should be checked throughout the turn, especially if
control pressures are held rather than trimmed off.
Some airplanes are very stable during turns, requiring only
slight trim adjustments that permit hands-off flight while the
airplane remains in the established attitude. Other airplanes
　
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