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not the only tools to aid the pilot in maintaining the desired
power or attitude; they should be used in conjunction with the
primary and supporting instruments in order to better manage
the flight. With the introduction of airspeed tapes, the pilot
can monitor airspeed to within one knot. Fixation can lead
to attempting to keep the airspeed to an unnecessarily tight
tolerance. There is no need to hold airspeed to within one
knot; the Instrument Rating Practical Test Standards (PTS)
allows greater latitude.
Omission
Another common error associated with attitude instrument
flying is omission of an instrument from the cross-check. Due
to the high reliability of the PFD and associated components,
pilots tend to omit the stand-by instruments as well as the
magnetic compass from their scans. An additional reason
for the omission is the position of the stand-by instruments.
Pilots should continue to monitor the stand-by instruments
in order to detect failures within those systems. One of the
most commonly omitted instruments from the scan is the
slip/skid indicator.
Emphasis
In initial training, placing emphasis on a single instrument
is very common and can become a habit if not corrected.
When the importance of a single instrument is elevated above
another, the pilot begins to rely solely on that instrument
for guidance. When rolling out of a 180° turn, the attitude
indicator, heading indicator, slip/skid indicator, and altimeter
need to be referenced. If a pilot omits the slip/skid indicator,
coordination is sacrificed.
5-1
Introduction
Instrument flying techniques differ according to aircraft
type, class, performance capability, and instrumentation.
Therefore, the procedures and techniques that follow need
to be modified to suit individual aircraft. Recommended
procedures, performance data, operating limitations, and
flight characteristics of a particular aircraft are available in the
Pilot’s Operating Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/
AFM) for study before practicing the flight maneuvers.
The flight maneuvers discussed here in Chapter 5-I assume
the use of a single-engine, propeller-driven small airplane
with retractable gear and flaps and a panel with instruments
representative of those discussed earlier in Chapter 3, Flight
Instruments. With the exception of the instrument takeoff, all
of the maneuvers can be performed on “partial panel,” with the
attitude gyro and heading indicator covered or inoperative.
Airplane Basic
Flight Maneuvers
Chapter 5, Section I
Using Analog Instrumentation
5-2
Figure 5-2. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Fast Cruise
Speed.
Figure 5-1. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Slow
Cruise Speed.
Figure 5-3. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Normal
Cruise Speed.
Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch Control
The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon. In
level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and load.
For training purposes, the latter factor can normally be
disregarded in small airplanes. At a constant airspeed, there is
only one specific pitch attitude for level flight. At slow cruise
speeds, the level flight attitude is nose high with indications
as in Figure 5-1; at fast cruise speeds, the level-flight attitude
is nose low. [Figure 5-2] Figure 5-3 shows the indications
for the attitude at normal cruise speeds. The instruments used
to determine the pitch attitude of the aircraft are the attitude
indicator, the altimeter, the vertical speed indicator (VSI),
and the airspeed indicator (ASI).
Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator gives the direct indication of pitch
attitude. The desired pitch attitude is gained by using the
elevator control to raise or lower the miniature aircraft in
relation to the horizon bar. This corresponds to the way pitch
attitude is adjusted in visual flight by raising or lowering
the nose of the airplane in relation to the natural horizon.
However, unless the airspeed is constant, and until the
level flight attitude for that airspeed has been identified and
established, there is no way to know whether level flight as
5-3
Figure 5-4. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One-Half Bar
Width.
Figure 5-5. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One Bar Width.
Figure 5-6. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, One-and-One-Half
Bar Width.
indicated on the attitude indicator is resulting in level flight
as shown on the altimeter, VSI, and ASI. If the miniature
　
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