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in voice communications. We hear what we expect to perceive and this allows the
perception in working memory of routine and expected events to proceed rapidly and
with minimal effort. Their importance in our lives cannot be underestimated:
Expectations are powerful determinants of both everyday experience and professional
decision making. Expectations are hypotheses about the future based on experience,
i.e., expectations are derived from our stored patterns, scripts, or schemas. (Roske-
Hofstrand and Murphy, 1998:101).
Whilst such expectations can be a useful tool to enhance learning, they are a source of
vulnerability. Under conditions of high workload or distraction, events can occur
which are other than as expected. Expectation errors may be caused by fatigue and
information overload. Noise can interfere with signals so we hear what we expected
to hear, not what was said. The expectation of an instruction can prime a pilot to
mistake a different communication for the anticipated one. Brookes (1996:22)
provides an example of the problem:
In May 1995, a Lufthansa Airbus A300 was taxiing at Heathrow. An amended
standard instrument departure (SID) with an altitude restriction was being passed to
pilots by the tower controller due to special flights in the area. It was not known
when these flights would finish and when normal SID’s would be resumed; the crew
might receive either. The Lufthansa crew noted that the controller passed the
amended SID to preceding aircraft before instructing them to line-up, then issued the
take-off clearance. The Lufthansa crew was not given the amended SID prior to the
line-up instruction. As the aircraft took off, the pilots saw two vehicles and a taxiing
Boeing 747 crossing the runway. They elected to continue with the take-off, passing
safely over the obstacles, but commented to ATC that to be cleared for take-off with
ground traffic crossing the runway was not a good idea. The controller advised them
that a take-off clearance had not been issued. A review of the ATC tapes revealed
that after the A300 had lined up, an amended SID had been issued. The crew
expected to receive a take-off clearance after line-up so had taken off.
That two pilots were mistaken demonstrates that expectancy is very high in the air
traffic system. Unlike in social conversation, a pilot hearing a distorted control
message knows that the controller would not say something meaningless or trivial.
The pilot tries to fill the gaps and hears the message he or she is expecting.
The other aspect to expectancy is that poor communications by controllers leads to
differing expectations. In a review of Swedish incidents Haglund (1994:151)
commented that the air traffic controller “expects, often as a result of indistinct or
incomplete phraseology, that a pilot will act in a certain manner. The controller
therefore neglects to take measures that would ensure the pilot to perform in the
manner assumed by the controller”. Expectation, then, is a double-edged sword: poor
phraseologies by controllers may cause expectation errors, but good phraseologies
may not necessarily prevent them.
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3.6 Efficient Communication
The aim of communication is to achieve a certain effect on the receiver. Successful
communication takes place when the intended result is achieved. Communication can
be viewed as the means by which pilots and controllers jointly accomplish operational
goals. Hawkins (1993:152) calls efficient communications the “lubricator of the
system”—without it the airways would grind to a halt because the system’s safety is
reliant upon verbal communications.
To communicate effectively, three conditions must be met (Brauner, 1994:31):
1. the sender must be sure of what he or she wants to achieve;
2. this intention should be recognised by the receiver;
3. the receiver should understand the personal advantage in behaving according to
instructions.
Thus, communication always involves agreement on common goals. This does not
imply a necessarily harmonious alliance because an agreement may be forced upon
the parties in question, resulting in at least one of the parties having to compromise
their position. The dispute remains unresolved and may flare again. If, however, the
agreement comes through an understanding of the other’s goals and needs,
communication is likely to be effective.
In air traffic control, communications effectiveness depends upon shared assumptions
or a shared mental model or shared situational awareness between the sender and
receiver. Pilots and controllers, we noted earlier, have differing perspectives of the
aviation system. They have an overlapping mental model, not a coincidental one.
　
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