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Madeira, Portugal Boeing 727 Nov. 19, 1977
Madeira, Portugal Aérospatiale SE. 210 Caravelle Dec. 18, 1977
Pensacola, Florida, U.S. Boeing 727 May 8, 1978
Palermo, Italy McDonnell Douglas DC-9 Dec. 23, 1978
Note: JFK = John F. Kennedy International Airport
Source: Richard A. Johnson, 1984, and Airclaims
FLIGHT SAFETY FOUNDATION • CABIN CREW SAFETY • NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 1998 3
such airports worldwide is much higher.11,12 Forty-four of the
50 busiest U.S. airports (1996 data) are located within five miles
of a significant body of water (Table 3, page 4), said the study.13
“These statistics suggest that the likelihood of [unplanned water
contact] will increase as the number of transport-category aircraft
operations increase[s]; dramatic increases in operations are
predicted for early in the next century,14” said the study. “As a
consequence, state-of-the-art emergency equipment and
[aircraft-crewmember] training in ditching and water-survival
procedures are likely to become more important than ever before.
“Accident reports also indicate that passengers are generally
uneducated about emergency aircraft evacuation and accidentsurvival
issues … survivors reported a lack of knowledge about
obtaining and using flotation devices, were unaware that they
should leave their carry-on luggage behind, and were unaware
that the escape slide could serve as a raft. The survivors also
had little idea about what to expect during rescue or how to
use rescue equipment.
“Communication among the [aircraft crewmembers] and
passengers is especially important to managing time in
emergency situations; [unplanned water contact has] special
requirements for atypical communications. … Other factors
[that] influence survival in water-related emergencies …
include [aircraft-crewmember] leadership, passenger reactions,
aircraft damage and water conditions. … The aircraft, when
intact, should generally remain afloat in calm seas for several
minutes, usually sinking tail first. Aircraft flaps, slats, engine
pylons, probes, other parts and debris could detach [and fuel
and other aircraft fluids could leak, exposing survivors to
chemical burns and slippery surfaces that hamper rescue],
presenting hazards to survivors and [survival/rescue]
equipment. Much of the aircraft condition, as well as the ability
to deplane into the rafts, will depend on the state of the sea. In
an actual emergency situation, the hazard to passengers and
[aircraft crewmembers] will increase as time passes, and proper
[crewmember] training will allow the [crewmembers] to
function effectively and maintain control of the situation.
“Additionally, rescue operations themselves also produce
dangers, such as a raft capsizing from helicopter rotor wash
and the possibility of electrocution if passengers or [aircraft
crewmembers] grasp the steel rescue cable dangling from the
[static-electricity-charged] helicopter fuselage while … in the
water.”
The study identified deficiencies, suggested operational and
research options to address deficiencies, and recommended
changes to training programs to enhance safety in emergency
water landings.
Aircraft Manufacturers Determine
Procedures for Ditching
Aircraft manufacturers develop ditching procedures that are
the basis for airline ditching and water-survival training
programs, as required by FAR Part 25.1581. Ditching
recommendations are derived from tests and analyses of aircraft
characteristics during and after water entry, based on several
assumptions. These include a calm sea, a steady wind, minimal
aircraft velocity relative to the water, and appropriate approach
configuration, attitude, velocity and heading. Ditching analyses
include the effects of wind velocity and sea state, but flotation
analyses do not consider these variables.
“In [the flotation] analysis, flotation starts when the airplane
comes to rest,” said the study. “The initial flotation attitude
(depth and angle of the airplane in the water) is based primarily
on calculations related to the buoyancy contributions of the
wing box and fuselage. Change in airplane attitude over time,
because of inward water leakage through known sources —
[such as] vents, valves [and other openings] not closed in the
preditching procedures — is computed at multiple time
intervals until the [time that the] airplane is estimated to sink.
All of the evacuation and water-survival-related activities …
have to be achievable within this time.”
In the training materials reviewed, “preditching”
　
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