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problems of flight deck automation, Funk, et al.
(1999) and a special report by the FAA human
factors team (FAA 1996) concluded that the
complexity of automation and failures of pilot
understanding of automation were thought by
industry professionals to be major problems.
There is widespread agreement in the aviation
industry that pilots do not acquire a complete
understanding of the more advanced features of the
autoflight system in training. In fact, some airlines
do not attempt to teach highly automated lateral
navigation (LNAV) or vertical navigation (VNAV)
modes in training. It is left for the pilots to learn how
to use these functions while flying on the line.
Fortunately, it appears that pilots do continue to learn
about the more complex functions of modern stateof-
the-art airplanes long after they leave the training
center. Much of what pilots know about autoflight is
learned while flying in revenue service. Many pilots
say it takes about 12-18 months of flying in revenue
service to get comfortable with the automation. One
senior Boeing 767 captain estimated that he learned
approximately 60-70% of what he knows about
autoflight functions while flying on the line. A
typical account is that a pilot may go through three
stages of automation use: In the first six months of
experience the pilot is afraid of the automation and
therefore makes too little use of it. In the next six
months of flying the pilot gains confidence and tries
to use the automation to solve every problem, thereby
using the automation in inappropriate ways. Finally,
the pilot understands what the automation does and
what it does not do, and begins to use the automation
to make the job easier only when it is appropriate to
do so. While many pilots voice the beliefs contained
in this progression the evidence for it is entirely
anecdotal. What would a more systematic study
reveal about how pilots acquire expertise with
automation?
Observations from the jump seat suggest that what is
learned by pilots after they leave the training center
and enter revenue service includes conceptual
reorganization, tuning of skills, and reassurance that
what is known is sufficient to operate the airplane
safely in the real flight environment. The goal of this
research project was to discover how pilots'
understanding of flight deck automation develops
over the course of initial training and through early
stages of operating experience. We hoped to
document what was learned, when it was learned and
how it was learned. Presumably, what pilots actually
do is related to how they think about autoflight,
which is in turn related to what they know about
autoflight. We used primarily ethnographic methods
to determine how pilots conceive of autoflight mode
management (especially vertical mode management).
Methods
In this project we chose to following a small number
of pilots through the process of skill acquisition with
regard to autoflight systems in the Airbus A320
passenger aircraft. To accomplish this, we recruited
15 pilots as they entered initial training with a major
US-based airline and gathered data from them at
regular intervals as they made their way along the
initial portions of their careers flying the A320. We
attempted to arrange both an interview and a jump
seat observation session with each of the pilots at
each sampling point. We were successful in
conducting the interviews on schedule until our work
was interrupted in September of 20011. Due to
scheduling conflicts, we were able to arrange
jumpseat observations for only about half of the
scheduled sample points.
Interviews
The interview data consist of 46 interviews with 15
pilots. Interviews were scheduled at four points in
each pilot’s career on the Airbus A320.
1. Initial Interview: conducted in the first few days
of training. This interview sought information about
the pilot’s flying background and any preconceptions
the pilot had about the airplane. These interviews
contain discussions of attitudes toward automation in
general. All initial interviews were conducted by a
researcher face-to-face with the pilot, and all 15
pilots participated in an initial interview. These
interviews will be referred to collectively as the
Initial Interview Set (Init). Most of the subsequent
interviews were conducted by a researcher2 by
telephone.
2. First line interview: conducted during the first
few months of experience flying on the line. In these
interviews pilots were asked to recall the most recent
　
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