Tip Vortex
No Wind Hover
Blade Tip

Vortex
OUT OF GROUND EFFECT (OGE) IN GROUND EFFECT (IGE)
Downwash Pattern

Equidistant 360°
Figure 3-7. Air circulation patterns change when hovering out of ground effect (OGE) and when hovering in ground effect (IGE).
This elbow moves away from

the mast as the rotor is tilted.
This elbow moves toward

the mast as the rotor is tilted.
Mast

Axis
CM CM
CM
CM
Figure 3-6. Because of the underslung rotor, the center of
mass remains approximately the same distance from the
mast after the rotor is tilted.
3-4
higher pitch angle, and more power is needed to move
the air down through the rotor.
Ground effect is at its maximum in a no-wind condition
over a firm, smooth surface. Tall grass, rough terrain,
revetments, and water surfaces alter the airflow pattern,
causing an increase in rotor tip vortices.
GYROSCOPIC PRECESSION
The spinning main rotor of a helicopter acts like a gyroscope.
As such, it has the properties of gyroscopic
action, one of which is precession. Gyroscopic precession
is the resultant action or deflection of a spinning
object when a force is applied to this object. This action
occurs approximately 90° in the direction of rotation
from the point where the force is applied. [Figure 3-8]
Let us look at a two-bladed rotor system to see how
gyroscopic precession affects the movement of the tippath
plane. Moving the cyclic pitch control increases
the angle of attack of one rotor blade with the result
that a greater lifting force is applied at that point in the
plane of rotation. This same control movement simultaneously
decreases the angle of attack of the other
blade the same amount, thus decreasing the lifting force
applied at that point in the plane of rotation. The blade
with the increased angle of attack tends to flap up; the
blade with the decreased angle of attack tends to flap
down. Because the rotor disk acts like a gyro, the
blades reach maximum deflection at a point approximately
90° later in the plane of rotation. As shown in
figure 3-9, the retreating blade angle of attack is
increased and the advancing blade angle of attack is
decreased resulting in a tipping forward of the tip-path
plane, since maximum deflection takes place 90° later
when the blades are at the rear and front, respectively.
In a rotor system using three or more blades, the movement
of the cyclic pitch control changes the angle of
attack of each blade an appropriate amount so that the
end result is the same.
VERTICAL FLIGHT
Hovering is actually an element of vertical flight.
Increasing the angle of attack of the rotor blades (pitch)
while their velocity remains constant generates additional
vertical lift and thrust and the helicopter ascends.
Decreasing the pitch causes the helicopter to descend.
In a no wind condition when lift and thrust are less than
weight and drag, the helicopter descends vertically. If
90°
Axis
Upward

Force

Applied

Here
Reaction

Occurs

Here
New Axis
Gyro Tips

Down Here
Gyro Tips

Up Here
Old Axis
Figure 3-8. Gyroscopic precession principle—when a force is applied to a spinning gyro, the maximum reaction occurs approximately
90° later in the direction of rotation.
Blade

Rotation
Angle of Attack

Decreased
Maximum

Upward

Deflection
Maximum

Downward

Deflection Angle of Attack

Increased
Figure 3-9. With a counterclockwise main rotor blade rotation,
as each blade passes the 90° position on the left, the
maximum increase in angle of attack occurs. As each blade
passes the 90° position to the right, the maximum decrease
in angle of attack occurs. Maximum deflection takes place
90° later—maximum upward deflection at the rear and maximum
downward deflection at the front—and the tip-path
plane tips forward.
3-5
lift and thrust are greater than weight and drag, the helicopter
ascends vertically. [Figure 3-10]
FORWARD FLIGHT
In or during forward flight, the tip-path plane is tilted forward,
thus tilting the total lift-thrust force forward from
the vertical. This resultant lift-thrust force can be resolved
into two components—lift acting vertically upward and
thrust acting horizontally in the direction of flight. In
addition to lift and thrust, there is weight (the downward
　
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