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and straight. People do not interface perfectly with the various components of the world in which they work.
To avoid tensions that may compromise human performance, the effects of irregularities at the interfaces
between the various SHEL blocks and the central Liveware block must be understood. The other
components of the system must be carefully matched to humans if stresses in the system are to be avoided.
4.5.16 Several different factors put the rough edges on the Liveware block. Some of the more
important factors affecting individual performance are listed below:
a) Physical factors: These include the individual’s physical capabilities to perform the required tasks,
e.g. strength, height, reach, vision and hearing.
4-10 Safety Management Manual (SMM)
Figure 4-4. SHEL model
b) Physiological factors: These include those factors which affect the human’s internal physical
processes, which can compromise a person’s physical and cognitive performance, e.g. oxygen
availability, general health and fitness, disease or illness, tobacco, drug or alcohol use, personal
stress, fatigue and pregnancy.
c) Psychological factors: These include those factors affecting the psychological preparedness of the
individual to meet all the circumstances that might occur, e.g. adequacy of training, knowledge and
experience, and workload. The individual’s psychological fitness includes motivation and judgement,
attitude towards risky behaviour, confidence and stress.
d) Psycho-social factors: These include all those external factors in the social system of individuals
that bring pressure to bear on them in their work and non-work environments, e.g. an argument with
a supervisor, labour-management disputes, a death in the family, personal financial problems or
other domestic tension.
4.5.17 The SHEL model is particularly useful in visualizing the interfaces between the various
components of the aviation system. These include:
• Liveware-Hardware (L-H). The interface between the human and the machine (ergonomics) is the
one most commonly considered when speaking of Human Factors. It determines how the human
interfaces with the physical work environment, e.g. the design of seats to fit the sitting
characteristics of the human body, displays to match the sensory and information processing
characteristics of the user, and proper movement, coding and location of controls for the user.
However, there is a natural human tendency to adapt to L-H mismatches. This tendency may mask
serious deficiencies, which may only become evident after an accident.
H
L
S L E
S = Software (procedures,
symbology, etc.)
H = Hardware (machine)
E = Environment
L = Liveware (human)
In this model the match or
mismatch of the blocks (interface)
is just as important as the
characteristics of the blocks
themselves. A mismatch can be
a source of human error.
Chapter 4. Understanding Safety 4-11
• Liveware-Software (L-S). The L-S interface is the relationship between the individual and the
supporting systems found in the workplace, e.g. the regulations, manuals, checklists, publications,
SOPs and computer software. It includes such “user friendliness” issues as currency, accuracy,
format and presentation, vocabulary, clarity and symbology.
• Liveware-Liveware (L-L). The L-L interface is the relationship between the individual and other
persons in the workplace. Flight crews, ATCOs, AMEs and other operational personnel function as
groups, and group influences play a role in determining human behaviour and performance. This
interface is concerned with leadership, cooperation, teamwork and personality interactions. The
advent of crew resource management (CRM) has resulted in considerable focus on this interface.
CRM training and its extension to ATS (team resource management (TRM)) and maintenance
(maintenance resource management (MRM)) promote teamwork and focus on the management of
normal human errors. Staff/management relationships are also within the scope of this interface, as
are corporate culture, corporate climate and company operating pressures, which can all
significantly affect human performance.
• Liveware-Environment (L-E). This interface involves the relationship between the individual and
the internal and external environments. The internal workplace environment includes such physical
considerations as temperature, ambient light, noise, vibration and air quality. The external
environment (for pilots) includes such things as visibility, turbulence and terrain. Increasingly, the
24/7 aviation work environment includes disturbances to normal biological rhythms, e.g. sleep
patterns. In addition, the aviation system operates within a context of broad political and economic
　
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