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  192 out of 200 reports (96 percent) described one or more communications anomalies that occurred within the cockpit during   flight (as opposed to preflight, or post-tiedown, communications anomalies).
Operational Factors
In addition to our analysis of cockpit communications anomalies, we examined the types of operational factors that were present during dual flight training, and identified the leading combinations of factors associated with incident occurrence. We found that instructor critiques during ongoing maneuvers were the most frequent operational pattern (27 percent of citations), closely followed by maneuvers during ongoing communications with Tower (26 percent), and instructor critiques during ongoing Tower communications (20 percent of citations). The following description of a wrong-runway takeoff illustrates how an instructor’s perception of task priority may have been distorted by the desire to critique the student:
We took off on [runway] 24 instead of 30, as the Tower subsequently informed us. As I reviewed the event later, with my student and in my own mind, I realized how I may have added to the uncertainty. I was busy pointing out airport markings and critiquing the flight to this point.  The priority should have been communications with the Tower and standard procedure. (ASRS Record #137322)
EVENT CONSEQUENCES
More than three-fourths of all the GA communications incident citations involved some ATC-related infraction or violation of FARs. Most often this was non-compliance with a clearance (51 percent of citations), but more than a third of all citations also involved clearance-related ground hazards, such as runway incursions (22 percent) and ground conflicts (10 percent). Aircraft damage was reported in 13 percent of citations.
Although the study’s report selection criteria had required that there be direct reference to verbal communications between instructor and trainee, no such requirement existed regarding ATC communications. The large number of ATC-related consequences was therefore unexpected. We believe that the high incidence of missed ATC clearances in the study set, and reporters’ failure to comply with various clearance requirements, directly relate to several other patterns observed in the data: (1) the concentration of dual instruction incidents on or near airports, especially tower-controlled airports with their demanding communications requirements; and (2) the operational context in which dual instruction often occurs, specifically, the simultaneous occurrence of internal verbal or external radio communications with aircraft maneuvers and demonstrations.
It is clear that the dual instruction places heavy demands on the attention management and communications skills of both instructor and trainee, and that lapses in concentration may result in reduced situational awareness and safety consequences.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
General Aviation flight instruction presents an environment with unique external and intracockpit communications requirements. This research identified key communications factors that contributed to incidents in the study set. The research team also developed some possible approaches to resolving the communications problems identified.
　
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