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Properties of ASRS Data.
ASRS data have certain limitations. Reporters to ASRS may introduce biases that result from a greater tendency to report serious events than minor ones; from organizational and geographic influences; and from many other factors. All of these potential influences reduce the confidence that can be attached to statistical findings based on ASRS data. However, the proportions of consistently reported incidents to ASRS, such as altitude deviations, have been remarkably stable over many years. Therefore, users of ASRS data may presume that incident reports drawn from a time interval of several or more years will reflect patterns that are broadly representative of the total universe of aviation safety incidents of that type.

METHOD
A final data set of 200 incidents were selected that met the scoping criteria for the study. Eighty-four percent of these reports were submitted by instructors; sixteen percent were submitted by trainees. This reporter distribution is almost identical to that of the ASRS database for all GA dual instruction incidents.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

EXTERNAL FACTORS
Our research team coded the external factors (airspace, altitude, ATC control status, flight phase) that were thought to influence communications-related events in our data set.6 Environment for GA Communications Incident Occurrences
A strong pattern emerged from our analysis of the environment in which dual instruction communications-related incidents occurred: Half or more of the incidents occurred within the airport environs and airspace, within 10 nautical miles of the airport, at altitudes less than 1,000 feet.
As depicted by Figure 1, almost half of the dual instruction events occurred in Class D airspace, with Class E airspace next in the number of occurrences.7 This
concentration of incidents within Class D airspace was not surprising, as both primary and more advanced types of instruction are airport-centered: primary instruction involves recurrent landing practice and pattern work, while more advanced flight instruction often involves approaches to an airport or related navigational aid, and takeoff/landing practice. In slightly over half of all events, the incident also occurred within a 10-nautical mile range of the airport (Figure 2) and at altitudes less than 1,000 feet AGL

(Figure 3). Consistent with the numbers of incidents in the study set that occurred on or near airports, and at low altitudes, communications-related incidents were most prevalent during the approach/descent phases (167 citations, 47 percent) and landing phase (103 citations, 29 percent) of flight.8 The concentration of incidents in these flight phases is doubtless due to the fact that more approaches and landings are performed in dual instruction than in other types of GA operations.
6
  A single incident occurrence reported to ASRS may involve more than one flight phase, event consequence, or type of airspace.  Multiple factors of this kind in ASRS reports are referred to as citations.  Subsequent references to these factors are therefore expressed as a percentage of total citations (which may exceed 100 percent) rather than as a percentage of total  reports.
　
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