Absence of reference to instruments to support the visual segment;

Failure to detect the deterioration of visual references; and,

Failure to monitor the instruments and the flight path, while both crew members are involved in the identification of visual references.

The following table provides a summary of the various factors and conditions together with their effects on the pilot’s perception and unintended actions that may result in  a hazardous situation:
 
Condition
 Perception
 Unintended Action
 Result
 
Narrow / long runway
 Being too high
 Push
 Land short / Land hard
 
Wide or short runway
 Being too low
 Pull
 Land long / overrun
 
Runway or terrain uphill slope
 Being too high
 Push
 Land short / Land hard
 
Runway or terrain downhill slope
 Being too low
 Pull
 Land long / overrun
 
Bright runway lighting
 Being too close (too steep)
 Push
 Land short / Land hard
 
Low intensity lighting
 Being farther away (too shallow)
 Pull
 Land long / Overrun
 
Light rain, fog, haze,  mist smoke, dust
 Being too high
 Push over
 Land short / Land hard
 
Heavy rain
 Being too close
 Push over
 Land short / Land hard
 
Entering fog (shallow layer)
 Increasing pitch
 Push over
 Steep glide path / CFIT
 
Flying in haze
 Being farther away  (too shallow)
 Pull up
 Land long / Overrun
 
Drifting rain, snow or sand
 Aircraft drifting sideways
 Undue drift correction
 Off-runway landing
 
Wet Runway
 Being farther away  (too high)
 Late flare
 Hard landing
 
Crosswind
 Being angled with  runway
 Cancel drift correction
 Drifting off track /  off runway centerline
 

Table 1
Effects of Visual Illusions on Pilot’s Perception and Actions
Prevention Strategies to Reduce the Effects of Visual Illusions

To lessen the effects of visual illusions, prevention strategies and lines-of-defense should be developed and implemented based on the following recommendations.
Hazard Awareness

Operators should assess their exposure to visual illusions in their operating environment (i.e., over the entire route network).
Flight crews should be educated and trained on the factors and conditions creating visual illusions and their effects on the perception of the environment and aircraft position:
　
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